Author: Advocate Jayendra Dubey

Well, here's a question that always makes me wonder about my genesis. Who am I? and to anyone who is on the same quest let me give you a breather, Even I haven't found the answer. So, here I'll keep it basic. I did my law from Lloyd Law College(2011-2014). Criminal law excited me the most during college days and still excites me in honourable fashion then one particular teacher at, Rau's Study Circle (Barakhamba Road) where I started my UPSC preparation made me excited about the Constitutional Law. Later, I developed an interest in IP laws and pursued a diploma in IP laws from ILI, New Delhi. Currently I'm Pursuing LLM From Golden Gate University, San Francisco. This blog is an attempt to understand the law and its nuances. For any further inquiry reach to me at advdubeyjayendra@gmail.com.

Can You Really Trust Your Land Title in Gautam Buddha Nagar? Hidden Risks Every Property Owner Should Know

The towering skyline of Noida and Greater Noida may suggest progress and prosperity—but beneath the surface lies a less glamorous truth: land and property title fraud is becoming alarmingly common, and even vigilant buyers are falling prey.

Whether it’s a plot in Dankaur, a flat in Sector-150, or a farmhouse near Jewar, the question looms large: Can you really trust that your title is safe?

The Ground Reality: Property Frauds Are Evolving

Over the past few years, property-related disputes in Gautam Buddha Nagar have spiked. These aren’t just due to builder delays or registry issues, but full-blown scams involving fake documents, double-selling, and insider manipulation.

In many cases, victims had registered documents and still lost possession. Why? Because the fraud wasn’t just in the transaction—it was in the system.

Common Property Scams in Noida-Greater Noida

1. Double Allotment by Builders

Especially in financially distressed projects, developers have been caught selling the same unit to multiple buyers, often using backdated agreements.

2. Forged Power of Attorney or Sale Deed

Using fake IDs or impersonation, fraudsters execute property transfers and then vanish. When the real owner appears, it’s already too late.

3. Collusion at Authority or Registry Level

Tampering with GNIDA/YEIDA records or manipulating mutation entries with help from insiders remains a loophole exploited with impunity.

4. Fake Brokers and Agents

Unauthorised brokers target NRIs or absentee owners, forging documents to sell off land or promising resale returns that never materialize.

5. Misuse of GPA in Resale Deals

GPA-based transactions, though common, are vulnerable. Often not backed by genuine consent, these are later challenged in court.

🧯 Legal Vulnerabilities in India

Unlike some countries with a state-guaranteed title system, land title in India flows from deeds and possession. This means that if the document itself is fake—even if registered—it’s not proof of real ownership.

Many buyers presume that a sale deed or registration means full security. In truth, it only proves execution, not authenticity of ownership.

🛡️ Practical Steps to Safeguard Your Title

If you are a buyer or landowner in Gautam Buddha Nagar, here’s what you must do:

✅ Verify title chain thoroughly – Get a lawyer to vet documents from the first allotment to the current status.

✅ Check RERA and Authority records – Many disputes arise because properties are under litigation or mortgage and buyers aren’t informed.

✅ Avoid cash components – Insist on transparent banking transactions and receipts for every payment.

✅ Visit Sub-Registrar and Authority personally – Don’t rely on agents. Your physical presence ensures better oversight.

✅ Revisit mutation records periodically – Ensure no one has tried to tamper with your records.

✅ Register a caution entry – In sensitive transactions, this is a legal method to alert others not to transact without your knowledge.

🏛️ What Can the Authorities Do?

Biometric Verification at Registry
Aadhaar-linked fingerprints and photos at the time of registration can deter impersonation.
Digitised Linked Land Records
Synchronisation between GNIDA, RERA, Sub-Registrar, and Banks will prevent fraudulent registry of encumbered properties.
Title Certification System
A government-backed verification system (similar to title insurance) could give buyers more confidence.
Dedicated Real Estate Fraud Cells
Quick FIR registration, investigation, and charge sheets in land frauds can prevent escalation.

🔚 Final Thought: Your Flat or Plot is Only as Safe as Your Vigilance

In a region as rapidly urbanizing as Gautam Buddha Nagar, the rush to buy property must be balanced by due diligence. Just because a document is registered doesn’t mean it’s genuine. Just because a builder has a flashy office doesn’t mean they won’t cheat.

As a lawyer practicing in this area, I’ve seen far too many honest families lose their homes, savings, and peace over avoidable mistakes. Don’t let that happen to you.

Ask questions. Verify everything. Trust, but verify again.

The Jurisprudence of Bail: Reasoned Orders and Judicial Discretion

In India, the jurisprudence of bail is undergoing a significant transformation. From being an arbitrary exercise to a structured judicial process, the Supreme Court has consistently emphasized that bail decisions must reflect sound reasoning and judicial mindfulness. The shift is not just procedural but reflects a deeper concern for upholding personal liberty, constitutional values, and the integrity of the justice system.

Below is a synthesis of landmark rulings that have laid down the contours of how courts must approach bail—particularly in ensuring that orders are reasoned, not cryptic, and compliant with the principles of natural justice.

1. Y. v. State of Rajasthan, (2022) 9 SCC 269

The Supreme Court criticized the High Court’s cryptic bail order, observing that such judgments do not reflect judicial application of mind. The Court lamented the growing trend of vague bail orders merely stating that “facts and circumstances have been considered” without spelling out what those facts are.

Key Takeaway:

A judicial order bereft of reasons is not just inadequate—it is arbitrary. “Reasoning is the lifeblood of the judicial system,” and vague references like “having perused the record” do not suffice.

2. Deepak Yadav v. State of U.P., AIR 2022 SC 2514

Here, the apex court reiterated that sound reasoning is essential, especially when serious offences are involved. The decision-maker must reassure the parties that discretion has been exercised judicially, after examining relevant considerations and ignoring extraneous ones.

3. Manoj Kumar Khokhar v. State of Rajasthan, (2022) 3 SCC 501

In this case, the Court invoked the Latin maxim: “cessante ratione legis cessat ipsa lex” — meaning, when the reason for a law ceases, so does the law itself. It held that cryptic and casual bail orders without meaningful justification are liable to be set aside.

4. Jaibunisha v. Meharban, (2022) 5 SCC 465

The Court clarified that although elaborate reasoning may not be required at the bail stage, some reasoning is indispensable. An order that lacks even basic rationale cannot be sustained.

5. Brijmani Devi v. Pappu Kumar, (2022) 4 SCC 497

Reiterating the need for relevant reasoning, the bench held that granting cryptic bail amounts to violation of natural justice. A “non-speaking order” renders the prosecution or informant remediless, justifying a challenge before a higher forum.

6. Ishwarji Nagaji Mali v. State of Gujarat, (2022) 6 SCC 609

The judgment acknowledges that while a detailed examination of evidence may not be possible at the bail stage, prima facie reasons justifying the grant of bail must be indicated. Absence of such reasoning renders the order unsustainable.

7. Sonu v. Sonu Yadav and Ors., (2021) 15 SCC 228

The Court explained how judicially reasoned bail orders bring transparency and credibility to the criminal justice process. Reasoned orders act as a bridge between judicial discretion and public trust.

8. Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar, (2014) 8 SCC 273

This judgment laid the foundation for limiting unnecessary arrests, especially in offences punishable with imprisonment up to 7 years. The Court directed police officers not to arrest automatically and required magistrates to apply judicial mind before authorizing detention.

Significance for Bail Jurisprudence:

It curbed mechanical arrests and called for recording reasons for both arrest and remand. Bail became the rule, not the exception.

9. Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI, (2022) 10 SCC 51

A pathbreaking judgment that introduced structured bail guidelines, the Court classified offences into categories and directed strict compliance with arrest and bail norms. It reinforced that:

For Category A offences (punishable up to 7 years), arrest should be avoided.
Default bail must be respected under Section 167(2) CrPC.
Courts must not delay bail on technicalities or minor lapses.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s consistent refrain is that bail is not to be denied merely as a punitive measure, nor granted casually without rational basis. Courts must strike a delicate balance between individual liberty and societal interest by:

Recording cogent reasons;
Avoiding non-speaking, vague, or template-like orders;
Exercising discretion free from arbitrariness.

The evolving jurisprudence makes it clear: bail orders must speak. And when they do, they echo the Constitution’s promise of fairness, liberty, and reason.

Adv. Jayendra Dubey
advdubeyjayendra@gmail.com
Available At:
Chamber Number 222/6, District Court Compound, Surajpur, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201306
Also At: IJLS & Partners, P3-362, Paramount Golfmart, Surajpur, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201306

Accountability Vs Overreach

Once upon a quiet morning in Delhi – just yesterday – a constitutional clock began ticking—not on the walls of North Block, not in the Parliament’s echoing halls—but from the Courtroom Number One of the Supreme Court of India. The justices weren’t merely interpreting law that day; they were asking a question that shook the silence of Raisina Hill:

“Can the President of India keep a Bill waiting forever?”

That one question has now turned into a national debate—on federalism, legislative sanctity, and what critics call judicial overreach. But is it really overreach, or is it just the judiciary doing what it must when others don’t?

The Trigger: A Delayed Assent and a Waiting State

At the heart of it lies a chain of bills—some from non-BJP-ruled states—that were passed by state legislatures, sent to governors, and from there, made their way into the silent corridors of Rashtrapati Bhavan, only to sit without response. One of them was a Tamil Nadu bill on NEET exemption, others followed from Telangana, Kerala, and Punjab.

Months passed. Even years. No assent. No rejection. Just silence.

In constitutional language, this isn’t just a delay. It’s a denial of democracy, where elected representatives are told, without being told, that their laws don’t matter.

Enter the Supreme Court: A Gentle Reminder with a Firm Hand

In April 2025, the Supreme Court took a firm stance. It directed that the President of India must act on bills referred to her within a “reasonable time”—not exceeding three months.

It was not a command to pass a bill. It was not a push to reject it either. It was merely a constitutional alarm clock—saying “You must act. Democracy cannot wait indefinitely.”

The Backlash: Overreach or Oversight?

Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar soon issued a sharp response. “The judiciary is turning into a super-parliament,” he warned. “Can courts now direct the President of India?”

This criticism echoes a concern many have raised in recent years: Is the judiciary crossing lines? Is it stepping into the shoes of the executive or legislature?

But Here’s the Counterpoint: Constitutional Silence Must Be Filled, Not Exploited

Let us be clear. The Supreme Court did not issue this direction under whim. It exercised its jurisdiction under Article 142—to do complete justice. And what could be more just than ensuring a legislative process reaches its logical end?

The Constitution never imagined that a Governor or the President could sit on a bill indefinitely. Our founding fathers didn’t envision executive silence as a political tool. And when constitutional gaps are weaponized into paralysis, judicial intervention is not overreach—it is oversight.

The Real Issue: Constitutional Morality and Federal Fairness

This case isn’t just about timelines. It’s about:

Federalism: When State Governments are unable to enforce laws passed by their legislatures, what message does it send about India’s unity in diversity?
Legislative Respect: Laws passed by elected assemblies deserve an answer—yes, no, or return with objections—not eternal limbo.
Institutional Responsibility: The President, bound by the advice of the Union Cabinet under Article 74, cannot be made a political shield.

What About Separation of Powers?

The separation of powers doctrine, often quoted in such debates, does not mean isolation. It means each organ must act within its role, and when one fails, another must intervene to preserve constitutional balance.

Think of it like a relay race. If the runner holding the baton stops mid-track, someone must nudge him—not to take the baton, but to remind him to keep moving.

In Closing: The Constitution is Not a Museum

It’s a living document. And sometimes, when the pens of legislators are paused and the signatures of executives are stalled, it is the gavel of the judiciary that must gently knock on the gates of democracy.

“Silence in governance is not neutrality. It is a choice. And when that silence stifles democracy, the courts are not only allowed—but obliged—to act.”

So no, this was not judicial overreach. It was constitutional stewardship. And the bell that rang from the Supreme Court was not a rebellion—it was a reminder that time, law, and democracy must all keep moving forward.

Supreme Court Ruling on FIRs: A New Era

“Ae khoon ke pyase, baat suno…”

When Rajya Sabha MP Imran Pratapgarhi posted these poetic lines on Instagram—lines echoing dissent and anguish—the Gujarat police responded by registering an FIR against him, citing provisions under the Indian Penal Code. But what followed wasn’t just a legal tussle over a social media post. It sparked a profound judicial reflection on how our criminal justice system must evolve in the age of voices and verses.

The Supreme Court of India recently delivered a landmark judgment that not only quashed the FIR but also took the opportunity to dissect the core procedural shifts introduced by the newly minted Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (BNSS)—India’s replacement for the long-standing Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (CrPC).

The Old Order: CrPC and FIRs Without Pause

For decades, the rule was clear. Under Section 154 of the CrPC, if you walked into a police station and reported a cognizable offence, the police had no choice—they had to register an FIR. No second-guessing. No inquiry. Even if the complaint sounded outrageous, if it disclosed a cognizable offence, it had to be recorded.

This was reaffirmed in the famous Lalita Kumari case, where the Supreme Court clarified that a preliminary inquiry was not permissible unless the information failed to disclose a clear cognizable offence.

And while that ensured accountability and swift action, it also left space for frivolous or politically motivated complaints to enter the criminal justice pipeline, sometimes chilling free speech and honest dissent in the process.

Enter BNSS: A Law That Hears Before It Strikes

The BNSS seeks to address this imbalance, and in doing so, makes a “significant departure” from its predecessor.

In the recent judgment, the Supreme Court—through a bench comprising Justice Abhay Oka and Justice Ujjal Bhuyan—zeroed in on Section 173 of the BNSS, the counterpart of Section 154 CrPC. At first glance, the two look nearly identical. But the twist lies in sub-section (3) of the new provision.

Under Section 173(3) of BNSS, when an officer receives information about a cognizable offence punishable by 3 to less than 7 years of imprisonment, they can pause, seek permission from a superior officer, and conduct a preliminary inquiry—just to see whether there’s actually a prima facie case.

In other words, before the ink hits the FIR register, the officer has a window to filter out the noise from real offence.

Why This Matters: A Poet’s Case in Point

In Pratapgarhi’s case, the poem’s words were powerful, perhaps unsettling to some. But the Supreme Court emphasized that freedom of speech, especially political and poetic expression, is constitutionally protected.

Registering an FIR over such expression, without the due caution BNSS now allows, could result in misuse of process. And that’s precisely what the new law aims to prevent.

The Court explained: Just because words are spoken or written, doesn’t mean they amount to a criminal offence. A police officer must first read, understand, and apply legal reasoning. That act—of merely interpreting content—isn’t a “preliminary inquiry” barred under Section 173(1), the Court clarified. But under Section 173(3), if the offence falls within that 3-7 year range, an actual preliminary inquiry can and should be conducted before registering an FIR.

A Legal Tightrope: Speed vs. Scrutiny

The judiciary acknowledged the tightrope walk here. Too much discretion, and justice may be delayed or denied. Too little, and we risk weaponizing criminal law against dissenters, journalists, poets, and activists.

With Section 173(3), BNSS introduces a calibrated discretion. Not a license to avoid registering FIRs, but a tool to screen allegations with lower gravity—provided the officer gets a green light from a senior.

It’s a subtle but powerful change. One that says: “Let the law listen before it acts.”

A New Chapter in Criminal Justice

This judgment is not just about a poem or a politician. It’s about how the law treats the first whisper of an allegation. It’s about building a system that is as sensitive to constitutional freedoms as it is to criminal violations.

So as BNSS begins to shape the new face of procedural law in India, the message from the top court is clear: In a democracy, FIRs are not just legal documents—they are instruments of power. And power must be exercised with reason, not reflex.

Adv. Jayendra Dubey
advdubeyjayendra@gmail.com
Available At:
Chamber Number 222/6, District Court Compound, Surajpur, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201306
Also At: IJLS & Partners, P3-362, Paramount Golfmart, Surajpur, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201306

Matrimonial Disputes: A Legal Battlefield or a Tool for Vendetta?

In the courtroom corridors where justice is sought, matrimonial disputes stand out as a uniquely complex category of cases. They are emotionally charged, legally intricate, and socially impactful. Having practiced law for several years, I have observed a troubling trend—marital litigation is increasingly being weaponized as a tool for vendetta rather than a quest for justice.

India’s legal framework for matrimonial disputes, particularly laws like Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC)/ Section 84 of Bhartiya Nyay Sanhita 2023 and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, was designed to protect women from harassment, abuse, and violence. These provisions have, without a doubt, provided much-needed relief to countless women in distress. However, their misuse has created an alarming counter-narrative—one where these laws are being wielded as weapons of retribution rather than shields for protection.

Litigation: A Path to Settlement or Extortion?

The primary purpose of the judiciary in matrimonial disputes should be to resolve issues, ensure justice, and facilitate amicable settlements wherever possible. However, the reality often unfolds differently. Many cases drag on for years, burdening both parties emotionally and financially. The prolonged litigation process frequently becomes less about justice and more about targeting a “sweet number”—a financial settlement that one party can extract from the other.

Take the case of Rajesh Kumar & Others vs. State of Uttar Pradesh (2017), where the Supreme Court acknowledged the misuse of Section 498A as a tool to harass and coerce the accused. The Court observed that false complaints under this provision often result in prolonged litigation, forcing families to concede to unreasonable settlements simply to end the ordeal. The decision introduced guidelines for Family Welfare Committees to scrutinize allegations before legal action is initiated—an important step, though implementation remains inconsistent.

Similarly, in Preeti Gupta vs. State of Jharkhand (2010), the Supreme Court noted that the involvement of the groom’s extended family, often including elderly parents and siblings living far away, highlights the malicious intent behind many complaints. The misuse of these provisions not only clogs the judiciary with frivolous cases but also detracts from the focus on genuine instances of harassment.

A System Tilted Too Far?

There is no denying that our matrimonial laws are heavily inclined in favor of women. This bias, while well-intentioned, creates a legal imbalance. It often leaves the groom and his family defenseless against false accusations, with limited recourse for proving their innocence. The social stigma associated with such cases exacerbates their plight, even when allegations are baseless.

The story of Amit (name changed for anonymity), a software engineer, is a poignant example. His wife filed multiple cases against him and his family, including allegations of domestic violence and dowry harassment, after a dispute over financial contributions to household expenses. Despite providing evidence of his wife’s extravagant spending and the absence of dowry demands, Amit’s family endured years of litigation. Eventually, the case was dismissed as frivolous, but not before irreparably damaging familial relationships and careers.

At the same time, it is essential to recognize that the original intent behind these laws remains valid. Women in India, particularly in rural and patriarchal settings, continue to face systemic oppression and violence. These laws were—and still are—necessary to protect those who lack the resources or societal support to defend themselves. However, the pendulum has swung too far, necessitating a recalibration to ensure fairness and equity.

The Need for Judicial Prudence and Reform

The misuse of matrimonial laws underscores the urgent need for judicial prudence. Courts must distinguish between genuine grievances and malicious litigations. Mechanisms such as pre-litigation mediation and stricter penalties for filing frivolous cases can serve as deterrents against misuse.

For instance, courts should emphasize mediation before the registration of an FIR in matrimonial disputes. The Arnesh Kumar vs. State of Bihar (2014) judgment directed that arrests in dowry cases should not be made automatically and without proper investigation. Implementing this directive more rigorously could prevent unnecessary arrests and harassment.

Furthermore, reforms should aim for gender-neutrality in laws governing harassment and domestic violence. Men, too, can be victims of emotional and physical abuse, though such cases often go unreported due to societal stigma. Expanding the scope of these laws to address abuse holistically could create a more balanced legal framework.

A Call for Societal Change

Beyond legal reforms, there is a pressing need for societal change. Matrimonial disputes often arise from deeply ingrained cultural expectations and rigid gender roles. Education and awareness campaigns can play a crucial role in fostering healthier relationships and reducing conflicts. Families must also play a more constructive role, prioritizing resolution over retaliation.

The concept of marriage itself must be reframed—from a transaction between families to a partnership between individuals. Mutual respect and communication should be emphasized, while societal pressures to conform to outdated norms should be challenged.

Conclusion

Matrimonial laws were never meant to be weapons of vendetta; they were tools of justice and protection. It is imperative for lawmakers, the judiciary, and society at large to address the growing misuse of these laws while ensuring their original purpose is not diluted.

A legal system that is fair and impartial is the cornerstone of any civilized society. As we move forward, the goal should not merely be to win cases but to heal relationships and provide justice in its truest sense. Only then can matrimonial disputes evolve from battlegrounds into pathways for reconciliation and closure.

Adv. Jayendra Dubey

The Week At A Glance

This week has been incredibly rewarding in my legal practice, with two standout achievements that highlight the diverse and challenging nature of our work.

First, we successfully secured bail for a client in a POCSO case. These cases are notoriously complex and sensitive, requiring a deep understanding of the law and a strategic approach to ensure justice while upholding the rights of the accused. The outcome was a testament to our dedication, meticulous preparation, and unwavering commitment to our clients.

Second, we achieved an exceptional settlement for a client in a consumer dispute. Navigating the intricacies of consumer law and negotiating terms that are fair and favorable requires both legal acumen and a nuanced understanding of the client’s needs and the market dynamics. This settlement not only provided our client with the desired outcome but also reinforced our belief in the power of effective legal representation.

These victories are not just professional milestones but also personal affirmations of why we chose this field. Every case we handle, every client we represent, and every challenge we overcome strengthens our resolve to deliver justice and provide top-notch legal services.

Grateful for the trust our clients place in us and proud of the dedicated team that makes these successes possible. Here’s to many more victories and continued excellence in our practice.

#LegalVictory #ClientSuccess #POCSOCase #ConsumerLaw #BailGranted #LegalSettlement #LawyerLife #JusticeServed #LegalPractice #TeamSuccess #ProfessionalMilestone #LegalAchievements #LawFirm #ClientRepresentation #LegalExcellence

A Comparative Analysis: Section 156 of CrPC, 1973, and Section 175 of BNSS, 2023

In the evolving landscape of Indian legal procedures, the introduction of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, marks a significant milestone. This new legislation brings forth modernized practices aimed at enhancing the efficiency and accountability of the criminal justice system. A critical comparison between Section 156 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973, and Section 175 of BNSS, 2023, sheds light on the progressive changes introduced by the latter.

Section 156 of CrPC, 1973: Empowering the Police

Provision Overview:

Subsection (1): Empowers any officer in charge of a police station to investigate any cognizable case without needing prior approval from a Magistrate.
Subsection (2): Allows police officers to investigate offenses even if they were committed outside their territorial jurisdiction.
Subsection (3): Enables a Magistrate to order an investigation into any case, ensuring oversight in instances where the police may not act.

Key Takeaways:

Scope and Authority: Section 156 grants wide-ranging powers to police officers, facilitating prompt action in cognizable cases without the need for immediate judicial oversight.
Jurisdictional Flexibility: Officers can investigate offenses outside their jurisdiction, ensuring that legal boundaries do not hinder the pursuit of justice.
Magistrate’s Oversight: The provision for Magistrate-directed investigations acts as a safeguard against police inaction, allowing citizens to seek judicial intervention.

Section 175 of BNSS, 2023: Modernizing Investigations

Provision Overview:

Digitalization and Modernization: Advocates for the use of digital tools and modern investigative techniques to improve efficiency and accuracy.
Stricter Timelines: Introduces deadlines for completing investigations to ensure timely justice.
Enhanced Accountability: Implements stronger oversight mechanisms to reduce instances of police misconduct or negligence.

Key Takeaways:

Technological Integration: By incorporating digital tools, BNSS aims to streamline investigations, ensuring better evidence preservation and quicker case resolutions.
Timelines: Stricter timelines prevent unnecessary delays, promoting a more efficient justice system. However, it is essential to monitor the practicality of these deadlines to avoid rushed or incomplete investigations.
Accountability: Enhanced oversight mechanisms, such as regular audits and penalties for non-compliance, aim to ensure that police officers adhere to ethical standards and procedural requirements.

Comparative Analysis

Empowerment vs. Oversight:

CrPC Section 156: Primarily focuses on empowering police officers with broad investigative powers.
BNSS Section 175: Balances empowerment with enhanced oversight and accountability, preventing misuse of power and ensuring thorough investigations.

Technological Integration:

CrPC Section 156: Traditional in its approach, with less emphasis on modern tools.
BNSS Section 175: Embraces digital tools and modern techniques, representing a progressive shift towards a more efficient investigation process.

Timelines and Efficiency:

CrPC Section 156: Does not specify strict timelines for investigations.
BNSS Section 175: Enforces strict timelines to expedite investigations, though the implementation and adherence to these timelines need careful assessment.

Jurisdictional Flexibility:

Both sections offer flexibility in jurisdiction, but BNSS includes more structured procedures to maintain uniformity.

Conclusion

Section 156 of CrPC has been a cornerstone in empowering police officers to investigate cognizable offenses swiftly. However, its lack of emphasis on modern investigative tools and accountability has occasionally led to inefficiencies and misuse of power.

On the other hand, Section 175 of BNSS addresses these gaps by integrating digital tools, imposing stricter timelines, and enhancing oversight mechanisms. These changes aim to make the investigation process more efficient, transparent, and accountable.

The success of BNSS in revolutionizing the investigative process will hinge on its effective implementation and the ability to navigate the practical challenges that may arise.

Adv. Jayendra Dubey

advdubeyjayendra@gmail.com

Comparative Analysis of Section 230 in BNSS 2023, and Section 207 in the CrPC 1973

The legal framework in India has seen significant transformations over the years to adapt to changing times and technological advancements. One such instance is the introduction of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, which aims to modernize and streamline various aspects of criminal procedure. A notable section worth comparing is Section 230 of this new legislation with its predecessor, Section 207 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. This comparison reveals both substantive and procedural changes designed to enhance the efficiency and accessibility of the legal process.

Key Differences in Document References and Scope

Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (Section 230):

Updated Section References:
- The First Information Report (FIR) is now referenced under Section 173 instead of the previous Section 154.
- Statements recorded under subsection (3) of Section 180, rather than subsection (3) of Section 161.
- Confessions and statements recorded under Section 183, instead of Section 164.
- Documents forwarded to the Magistrate under subsection (6) of Section 193, compared to subsection (5) of Section 173 in the earlier law.

Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (Section 207):

Original Section References:
- FIR recorded under Section 154.
- Statements under subsection (3) of Section 161.
- Confessions and statements under Section 164.
- Documents forwarded under subsection (5) of Section 173.

The updating of section references in the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita signifies an attempt to reorganize and clarify the procedural aspects of criminal investigations and trials. This reorganization aims to create a more coherent and systematic approach to handling criminal cases.

Inclusion of Electronic Means

A significant innovation in Section 230 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, is the explicit mention of electronic means for furnishing documents. The provision states:

“Provided also that supply of documents in electronic form shall be considered as duly furnished.”

This inclusion reflects the growing recognition of digital transformation in legal processes. By allowing documents to be furnished electronically, the new law aims to expedite the delivery of justice, reduce physical paperwork, and make the legal process more accessible and efficient.

Specificity on Exclusions and Inspections

Another critical difference lies in the specificity regarding exclusions and inspections:

Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023:

Statements excluded must be requested under subsection (7) of Section 193.
The Magistrate has the authority to direct that voluminous documents be inspected personally or through an advocate in court.

Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973:

Exclusions are made under subsection (6) of Section 173.
Similar provisions for the inspection of voluminous documents but without the explicit detail found in the 2023 legislation.

The new law’s detailed approach ensures that all parties have clear guidelines on how exclusions and inspections are to be handled, potentially reducing ambiguity and enhancing the fairness of the judicial process.

Enhanced Procedural Clarity

The updated legislation introduces several procedural enhancements aimed at improving the clarity and effectiveness of criminal proceedings. These include:

Timeliness: The Magistrate is required to furnish documents to the accused and the victim without delay, and no later than fourteen days from the appearance of the accused.
Document Specificity: Detailed listings of the types of documents to be provided, ensuring that all relevant information is made available promptly.

Conclusion

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, represents a significant step forward in modernizing India’s criminal justice system. By comparing Section 230 with the corresponding Section 207 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, we see clear advancements in the handling and delivery of legal documents. These changes not only reflect a more organized legal framework but also embrace technological advancements to ensure timely and efficient administration of justice.

As legal practitioners and scholars continue to analyze and adapt to these changes, the ultimate goal remains the same: to uphold the principles of justice, fairness, and transparency in the criminal justice system.

More Such Comparison coming up soon. Stay Tuned.

Advocate Jayendra Dubey

Do you have any question related to BNSS or CRPC? You can reach me at: advdubeyjayendra@gmail.com
@jdscribbleslaw

All About Maintenance

Concept of Maintenance

Meaning:

The term “maintenance” refers to the support or sustenance necessary for living. It is not explicitly defined in any marriage laws across different religious communities. However, the entitlement to maintenance is premised on the claimant’s inability to support themselves. Maintenance typically includes expenses for the necessities of life but goes beyond mere survival, encompassing the lifestyle the claimant was accustomed to during the marriage. Courts consider various factors such as property possession, the husband’s earning ability, and the conduct of the parties when determining the amount of maintenance.

Objective:

The provisions regarding maintenance aim to serve a social purpose. These provisions are found in the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (sections 125-128), the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, and the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007. The primary objective is to enforce a man’s moral obligation to support his wife, children, and parents, ensuring they are not left destitute and driven to a life of vagrancy, immorality, or crime. The state seeks to prevent social problems arising from the inability of a wife, child, or parent to maintain themselves by providing appropriate measures.

Constitutional Provisions:

Maintenance laws align with Article 15(3) of the Indian Constitution, which allows the state to make special provisions for women and children. Article 39 also directs state policies to ensure that citizens have an adequate means of livelihood and that children develop in a healthy manner, protected from exploitation and abandonment.

Conditions for Maintenance:

The relationship of husband and wife must be proven.
The wife must be unable to maintain herself.
The husband must have sufficient means.
It must be proven that the husband has neglected or refused to maintain the wife.
A divorced wife can claim maintenance provided she has not remarried. This applies whether the divorce was initiated by the husband, mutually consented, or obtained by the wife. However, the Muslim Women Act, 1986, exempts Muslim women from these provisions, and they are governed by a separate set of rules.

Maintenance Under Hindu Law

Maintenance of Wife:

Under Section 24 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HM Act), either spouse can apply for interim maintenance if they lack independent income. The court determines the quantum of maintenance, which is payable from the date of petition presentation until the suit is dismissed or a decree is passed. Section 3(b)(i) of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956 (HAM Act), defines maintenance to include provisions for food, clothing, residence, education, and medical attendance.

Grounds for Award of Maintenance:

The husband has deserted or willfully neglected the wife.
The husband has treated the wife with cruelty.
The husband suffers from a virulent disease.
The husband has another wife living.
The husband keeps a concubine in the marital home.
The husband has ceased to be a Hindu.
Any other justifiable cause for separate living.

Quantum of Maintenance:

The court considers the person’s means and capacity when determining maintenance. For the husband, this includes his actual earnings and potential earning capacity, as it is presumed that every able-bodied person can earn and maintain his wife. Section 23(2) of the HAM Act outlines factors such as the parties’ status, the claimant’s reasonable wants, justification for living separately, and the claimant’s income and property.

Maintenance of Children:

Section 20 of the HAM Act obligates both parents to maintain their children. This includes bearing marriage expenses for an unmarried daughter. If a minor married daughter cannot maintain herself, she can claim maintenance under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code. Children are also entitled to maintenance under Sections 24 and 25 of the HM Act if the claimant has the responsibility of maintaining them.

Maintenance of Parents:

Section 20 of the HAM Act also imposes an obligation on children to maintain their parents if they cannot maintain themselves. This applies equally to sons and daughters. The obligation to maintain parents includes stepmothers if they are unable to maintain themselves.

Key Judicial Pronouncements:

K.Sivarama vs K.Bharathi: A marriage violating Sections 5 and 11 of the Hindu Marriage Act is invalid, and the woman cannot claim maintenance under Section 25 of the Act.
Mangala Bhivaji Lad vs Dhondiba Rambhau Aher: The court ruled that second wives are not entitled to maintenance under the Hindu Marriage Act and the HAM Act.
Shobha Suresh Jumani vs Appellate Tribunal: A wife living separately is entitled to claim maintenance under Section 18 of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act.
P. Srinivasa Rao vs P. Indira: The court emphasized that providing essentials for survival to a deserted wife and her children is a statutory and moral duty of the husband.
Dayali Sukhlal Sahu vs Smt. Anju Bai Santosh Sahu: The obligation of a father-in-law to maintain a daughter-in-law arises if she cannot maintain herself from her parents’ estate.
D. Krishna Prasada Rao vs K. Jayashri: The father’s obligation to maintain children is absolute, and the burden is on the parent to prove no default in an action for maintenance.

Maintenance Under Muslim Personal Law

Principles of Maintenance:

Maintenance under Muslim law includes food, clothing, and lodging. The obligation arises if the claimant has no property, is related to the obligor in prohibited degrees, or is the wife or child. The obligor must be in a position to support the claimant, and the obligation is subject to the economic condition of the obligor.

A husband is obligated to maintain his wife, regardless of her financial status, age, or physical condition, unless she is too young for matrimonial intercourse or refuses to cohabit without a valid reason. Maintenance is not payable if the wife is disobedient, leaves the husband’s house without justification, or elopes with another person. An agreement entitling the wife to maintenance upon certain conditions, such as ill-treatment or the husband’s second marriage, is valid.

The father is responsible for maintaining his sons until puberty and daughters until marriage. This includes upkeep for widowed or divorced daughters and children in the mother’s custody. If the father is unable to provide maintenance, the mother or parental grandfather assumes the responsibility.

Maintenance During Iddat:

A divorced Muslim woman is entitled to maintenance during the iddat period and, under certain conditions, beyond that period. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, allows a divorced woman to claim maintenance from her relatives if she cannot maintain herself after the iddat period.

Gulam Rashid Ali vs Kaushar Praveen: A divorced Muslim woman can claim maintenance from her former husband until she remarries.
S. Abdul Salam vs S. Ghousiya Bi: The special enactment of the Muslim Women Act overrides general provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code.
Danial Latifi vs Union of India: The Supreme Court upheld the provisions of the Muslim Women Act, allowing a divorced woman to claim maintenance from her relatives or the State Wakf Board if necessary.
Mumtazben Jushabbhai Sipahi vs Mahebubkhan Usmankhan Pathan: Maintenance during the iddat period is obligatory, and a divorced woman can seek maintenance from her relatives post-iddat.

Maintenance Under Christian Law: Maintenance Under Various Laws: An Overview

Maintenance Under Christian Law:

Christian women can claim maintenance through both criminal and civil proceedings. Section 36 of the Indian Divorce Act, 1869, provides for interim maintenance, while Section 37 allows a divorced wife to claim alimony for her lifetime. The provisions under the Indian Divorce Act are similar to those under the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936, and apply to Christians.

Divyananda vs Jayarai: A Christian woman cannot claim maintenance under Hindu customs without conversion, and her children, though illegitimate, are entitled to maintenance under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code.

Maintenance Under Parsi Law:

Parsi law allows for maintenance claims through criminal and civil proceedings. The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936, provides for interim and permanent maintenance, with the maximum amount being one-fifth of the husband’s net income. Section 40 of the Act outlines the factors to be considered when determining maintenance, including the parties’ income, property, and conduct.

Maintenance Under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973:

Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code allows individuals to claim maintenance from spouses, children, and parents. This provision applies irrespective of personal laws, providing a quick remedy for those neglected or refused maintenance by individuals with sufficient means.

Mohd. Ahmed Khan vs Shah Bano Begum: The Supreme Court ruled that Section 125 applies to all, regardless of religion, ensuring that Muslim women could claim maintenance. This led to the enactment of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986.
Gulam Rashid Ali vs Kanshar Praveen: A Muslim divorced woman is entitled to maintenance until she remarries.
Kalyan Dev Chowdary vs Rita Dev Chowdary: The Supreme Court held that 25% of the husband’s net salary is a just amount for maintenance.
Badshah vs Sou. Urmila Badsha Godse: The court ruled that victims of bigamous marriages are entitled to maintenance under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code.
Manoj Kumar vs Champa Devi: The Supreme Court directed a husband to grant maintenance to his deserted wife from the date when the divorce was decreed. This case underscores the court’s commitment to ensuring financial support for deserted spouses even post-divorce.
Shailaja & another vs Koyyanna: The Supreme Court reduced the maintenance from Rs. 15,000 to Rs. 6,000, asserting that the capability to earn should not be confused with actual earnings. The judgment highlighted that mere potential earning capacity does not justify reducing maintenance unless the person is indeed earning.
Abdul Salim vs Nagima Begam: The court clarified that a wife does not need to be destitute or in dire straits to claim maintenance. The fact that she lacks her own means to maintain herself adequately entitles her to claim maintenance from her husband.

Maintenance for Live-in Relationships

S.P.S. Balasubramanyam vs Suruttayan Andalli Padayachi & Ors.: The Supreme Court recognized the presumption of marriage under Section 114 of the Evidence Act for live-in relationships, ensuring that children from such relationships are deemed legitimate and entitled to a share in ancestral property.
Abhijit Bhikaseth Auti vs State Of Maharashtra and Others: The Maharashtra Government, following recommendations from the Malimath Committee and the Law Commission of India, proposed that women in long-term live-in relationships should enjoy the same legal status as wives, highlighting a progressive view on live-in relationships.

Married Daughter’s Liability

Vijaya Manohar Arbat vs Kashiram Rajara Sawai: The Supreme Court held that married daughters are liable to provide maintenance to their aged parents if the parents cannot maintain themselves. This landmark judgment emphasized that daughters remain obligated to their parents regardless of marital status.

Alteration in Allowance (Section 127 of the CrPC)

Bai Tahira vs Ali Hussain Fissali: The Supreme Court ruled that if the amount of deferred ‘Mehar’ paid at the time of divorce is sufficient for the wife’s lifetime, the order of maintenance under Section 125 can be canceled as per Section 127(3). However, this principle was challenged in subsequent rulings.
Shah Bano Begum vs Mohd. Ahmed Khan: The Supreme Court clarified that ‘Mehar’ is a consideration for marriage and not divorce, thus not satisfying the condition for canceling maintenance under Section 127(3)(b). This judgment affirmed that Muslim women could claim maintenance regardless of the ‘Mehar’ amount
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

Section 20: Monetary Reliefs:

The Act allows magistrates to direct respondents to pay monetary reliefs to meet the expenses incurred due to domestic violence. This includes loss of earnings, medical expenses, property damage, and maintenance for the aggrieved person and her children. The relief granted must be adequate, fair, and consistent with the aggrieved person’s standard of living.

Sikakollu Chandra Mohan vs Sikakollu Saraswathi Devi and another: The court justified interim maintenance under Section 20(1)(d) of the Act, in addition to an order from the Family Court under Section 125 of the CrPC.
Rajesh Kurre vs Safurabai & Ors: The court emphasized that the provisions of the Domestic Violence Act are independent and in addition to other remedies available under any legal proceeding, not dependent on Section 125 of the CrPC or any other Act.
Mohd. Maqeenuddin Ahmed and others vs State of AP: The court refused to quash proceedings against a respondent who neglected to pay medical expenses and maintenance, affirming the validity of claims under the Domestic Violence Act.

The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007

Section 4: Maintenance of Parents and Senior Citizens:

This section entitles senior citizens and parents unable to maintain themselves to apply for maintenance from their children or relatives. The obligation extends to meeting the needs of the senior citizen to lead a normal life, with relatives liable in proportion to the property they inherit from the senior citizen.

Conclusion

Judicial pronouncements and legislative measures have significantly restored the rights of women and other dependents, ensuring their financial security and social upliftment. However, proper implementation and societal changes are crucial for these measures to be effective. Women’s emancipation through education, economic independence, and social awareness is essential for understanding their rights and achieving community well-being.

While maintenance should ideally be gender-neutral, the current focus remains on protecting women, reflecting the societal need to address gender disparities. Proper adherence to laws and judicial guidelines will ensure the success of these measures, providing support and dignity to those in need.

Adv. Jayendra Dubey

Understanding Exemption from Personal Appearance Under Sections 205 and 317 of CrPC

In criminal proceedings, the presence of the accused is generally required. However, Sections 205 and 317 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973, provide certain exemptions to this rule, ensuring flexibility and fairness in the judicial process.

Section 205 CrPC: Initial Stage Exemption

Section 205 allows a Magistrate to dispense with the personal attendance of the accused at the beginning or at any stage of the proceedings. This means that instead of appearing in person, the accused can be represented by their lawyer. This exemption can be granted if the Magistrate deems it reasonable based on the circumstances of the case.

Key Points:

Discretionary Power: The Magistrate has the discretion to decide based on the specifics of the case.
Conditions: The Magistrate may impose conditions for such exemptions, ensuring that justice is not compromised.

Section 317 CrPC: Exemption During Trial

Section 317 is applicable during an ongoing trial or inquiry. This section permits the court to continue with the proceedings even in the absence of the accused, provided their lawyer is present to represent them. The court must be satisfied that the absence of the accused will not affect the trial’s fairness.

Key Points:

Judicial Discretion: The court must record reasons for granting this exemption, ensuring that it is justified.
Representation: The accused must be represented by their lawyer during their absence.

Practical Considerations

Courts consider several factors before granting exemptions under these sections:

Nature of Offence: Seriousness and impact of the alleged crime.
Accused’s Conduct: Past behavior and compliance with court orders.
Hardship and Inconvenience: Practical difficulties faced by the accused in attending court.
Fairness and Justice: Ensuring that the trial remains fair and just without the personal appearance of the accused.

Conclusion

Sections 205 and 317 CrPC play a crucial role in ensuring that the judicial process is both fair and efficient. They provide a mechanism to avoid unnecessary hardship for the accused while maintaining the integrity of the trial. Courts use these provisions judiciously to balance the need for the accused’s presence with practical considerations of justice.

By understanding and effectively applying these sections, the judicial system can uphold the principles of fairness and justice without compromising on the efficiency and smooth conduct of legal proceedings.